AP U.S. Government and Politics · Lesson 3

Elections, campaign money and the media

Know Know it

Parties choose presidential nominees through state primaries and caucuses, which pick delegates to the national convention. In a closed primary only party members vote; in an open primary any registered voter may. States that vote early get extra attention, so many states have moved their contests earlier, which is called front-loading.

The Electoral College elects the president. Each state gets electors equal to its House seats plus its two senators, and DC gets 3 under the Twenty-third Amendment, for 538 in all. A candidate needs a majority, 270. Every state except Maine and Nebraska gives all of its electors to the statewide winner, so a candidate can win the presidency while losing the national popular vote. If no one reaches 270, the House chooses among the top three, with each state's delegation casting one vote (the Twelfth Amendment).

Most members of Congress who run again win, thanks to the incumbency advantage: name recognition, casework for constituents, free official mail (franking), easier fundraising and districts drawn to favor them. Senate races are statewide and are often more competitive than House races. The president's party usually loses House seats in midterm elections, while a popular presidential candidate can lift the party's other candidates through the coattail effect.

The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, amended in 1974, required disclosure, limited contributions and created the Federal Election Commission. In Buckley v. Valeo (1976) the Court upheld limits on contributions to candidates but struck down limits on campaign spending, treating spending as protected speech. The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 barred national parties from raising soft money and limited corporate- and union-funded ads naming federal candidates just before elections. In Citizens United v. FEC (2010), the Court ruled that the government may not limit independent political spending by corporations and unions, striking down part of that law. After it and a federal appeals court ruling the same year, super PACs may raise and spend unlimited sums, as long as they do not give to or plan with campaigns. A regular PAC may give limited amounts directly to candidates.

The news media act as a gatekeeper (deciding which stories get covered), a scorekeeper (tracking who is ahead, often as horse-race journalism) and a watchdog (exposing wrongdoing). By choosing what to cover, the media help set the agenda. The rise of ideological outlets and social media lets people pick news that fits their views, which can deepen polarization, and candidates now use social media to reach voters directly.

Trap Gifts to campaigns are capped; independent spending is not

Limits apply to money given to candidates, parties and regular PACs. Gifts to a super PAC are not capped, because it only spends independently. Spending that is truly independent of a campaign, such as a super PAC's ads, cannot be capped after Buckley v. Valeo and Citizens United v. FEC. The line is coordination: once a group plans its ads with the campaign, the spending counts as a contribution.

Worked example Easy

How many electoral votes does a candidate need to win the presidency outright?

  1. 218
  2. 270Answer
  3. 435
  4. 538

How to solve it

  1. Total electors: 435 House seats plus 100 senators plus 3 for DC is 538.
  2. Half of 538 is 269, so a majority is 270.

Why each choice is right or wrong

  • A. Incorrect. 218 is a majority of the 435-member House, not of the Electoral College.
  • B. Correct. A majority of the 538 electors is 270, since half of 538 is 269 and a majority must be more than half.
  • C. Incorrect. 435 is the number of voting House members, which is only part of the 538 electors.
  • D. Incorrect. 538 is the total number of electors; a candidate needs a majority of them, not all of them.

Explain Explain it

Task verbs: identify, explain

To explain an election result, name the rule or advantage at work and tie it to the facts. For example: the challenger lost because the incumbent's years of casework made her well known and well liked, while the challenger was a stranger to most voters.

Worked example Medium

A wealthy donor gives 5 million dollars to a group that runs TV ads praising a Senate candidate. The group never plans its ads with the candidate's campaign. What kind of group is it most likely to be?

  1. The candidate's own campaign committee, which can accept any amount
  2. A traditional PAC that gives the money straight to the campaign
  3. A national party committee raising soft money
  4. A super PACAnswer

How to solve it

  1. Note the two facts: an unlimited-size gift and no coordination with the campaign.
  2. Only a group that spends independently may take that much, which is a super PAC.

Why each choice is right or wrong

  • A. Incorrect. The candidate's own campaign committee may accept only limited contributions from each donor, not 5 million dollars.
  • B. Incorrect. A traditional PAC may take only limited gifts from each donor and gives limited sums, so it could not take 5 million dollars.
  • C. Incorrect. A national party committee raising soft money is barred by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002.
  • D. Correct. A super PAC may take unlimited sums and spend them independently, as long as it does not plan with the campaign.

Explain Your turn

Most members of the House who run for reelection win. Name one advantage House incumbents have over challengers, and explain how it helps them win.

Write it, then compare. Nothing you type here is saved or graded.

Compare with a model answer

A full answer does this

  • Names an accurate advantage of incumbency
  • Explains how the advantage named helps the incumbent win

Model answer

House incumbents can raise money far more easily than challengers, because donors and PACs expect them to win. A big war chest pays for ads and staff and often scares strong challengers out of the race, so the incumbent faces a weak opponent and wins.

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