AP English Language · Lesson 1

Lines of reasoning and counterarguments

Know Know it

A line of reasoning is the path an argument takes from evidence to thesis. Each claim should follow from the one before or add a new reason, so that by the end the reader has been walked, step by step, to the writer’s position. A list of loosely related points is not a line of reasoning.

Reasoning can move in two directions. Inductive reasoning goes from specific cases to a general conclusion: several towns that added bike lanes saw fewer crashes, so bike lanes tend to reduce crashes. Its conclusions are likely, not certain. Deductive reasoning goes from a general principle to a specific case: every student needs a passing grade in English to graduate, Ana is a student, so Ana needs one.

Strong arguments also deal with the other side. A counterargument is an objection the writer raises on purpose. A concession admits what is fair in it (“It is true that the plan costs more”). A rebuttal answers it (“but it will save money within five years”). A refutation goes further and shows the objection is simply wrong.

Raising the other side does not weaken an argument. It shows the writer has thought about the issue, treats readers who disagree fairly, and answers their doubts before they can harden.

Trap A concession is not a change of sides

When a writer says “Critics are right that…,” it is easy to think the writer now agrees with the critics. Read on: the next sentence usually begins with “but,” “yet” or “still” and explains why the writer’s position holds anyway.

Worked example Easy

Original passage written for Peakscor practice. From a student’s argument for a four-day school week:

Some parents worry that a four-day week would leave them scrambling for child care on Fridays. That concern is real. However, the district could keep school buildings open on Fridays for supervised clubs and tutoring.

What does the sentence “That concern is real” do in the passage?

  1. It states the thesis of the student’s argument
  2. It gives evidence that a four-day week saves money
  3. It concedes that the parents’ worry has some meritAnswer
  4. It rejects the parents’ worry as false

How to solve it

  1. Find the objection: parents need child care on Fridays.
  2. “That concern is real” admits the objection has merit, which is a concession; “However” then begins the rebuttal.

Why each choice is right or wrong

  • A. Incorrect. The thesis is that the district should adopt a four-day week; this sentence is about the parents’ worry.
  • B. Incorrect. Saving money is never mentioned; the sentence comments on the child care concern.
  • C. Correct. It grants that the child care worry is fair before the student answers it in the next sentence.
  • D. Incorrect. Calling the concern “real” accepts it rather than rejecting it; the answer comes in the next sentence.

Worked example Medium

Original passage written for Peakscor practice. Three claims from a student’s essay arguing that her school should start a composting program, in her current order:

(1) So a composting program would cut the school’s trash bill and teach students where their food waste goes.

(2) Our cafeteria throws away about 90 pounds of food scraps every day.

(3) Those scraps could become compost for the school garden instead of filling dumpsters the school pays to empty.

Which order of the claims creates the clearest line of reasoning?

  1. 1, 2, 3
  2. 2, 3, 1Answer
  3. 3, 1, 2
  4. 1, 3, 2

How to solve it

  1. Look for words that fix an order: “Those scraps” needs claim 2 first; “So” marks the conclusion.
  2. That gives 2, then 3, then 1.

Why each choice is right or wrong

  • A. Incorrect. Claim 1 begins with “So,” which signals a conclusion, so it cannot come before the reasons it rests on.
  • B. Correct. The amount of waste comes first, then what it could become, then the conclusion that begins with “So.”
  • C. Incorrect. Claim 3 refers to “Those scraps,” which makes no sense before claim 2 says what the scraps are.
  • D. Incorrect. Opening with claim 1 puts the “So” conclusion first, and claim 3’s “Those scraps” then comes before claim 2 says what the scraps are.

Explain Explain it

Task verbs: explain, evaluate

To explain how a writer handles the other side, name each move and its job: the counterargument (what the other side says), the concession (what the writer grants), and the rebuttal (why the position still holds). Then say what the move does for the reader: it shows fairness, answers a doubt, or narrows the disagreement.

Explain Your turn

A student arguing for a later school start time writes: “Some say a later start would push sports practices into the evening. That is true for some teams. Still, a practice that ends at six is a fair trade for students who are awake enough to learn in first period.” Identify the counterargument in this passage, and explain how the student answers it.

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Compare with a model answer

A full answer does this

  • Identifies the counterargument as the claim that a later start would push sports practices later
  • Explains how the student answers it

Model answer

The counterargument is that a later start would push sports practices into the evening. The student grants that this is true for some teams, then answers that a later practice is worth it because students would be awake enough to learn in first period.

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